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EC number: 233-899-5 | CAS number: 10421-48-4
- Life Cycle description
- Uses advised against
- Endpoint summary
- Appearance / physical state / colour
- Melting point / freezing point
- Boiling point
- Density
- Particle size distribution (Granulometry)
- Vapour pressure
- Partition coefficient
- Water solubility
- Solubility in organic solvents / fat solubility
- Surface tension
- Flash point
- Auto flammability
- Flammability
- Explosiveness
- Oxidising properties
- Oxidation reduction potential
- Stability in organic solvents and identity of relevant degradation products
- Storage stability and reactivity towards container material
- Stability: thermal, sunlight, metals
- pH
- Dissociation constant
- Viscosity
- Additional physico-chemical information
- Additional physico-chemical properties of nanomaterials
- Nanomaterial agglomeration / aggregation
- Nanomaterial crystalline phase
- Nanomaterial crystallite and grain size
- Nanomaterial aspect ratio / shape
- Nanomaterial specific surface area
- Nanomaterial Zeta potential
- Nanomaterial surface chemistry
- Nanomaterial dustiness
- Nanomaterial porosity
- Nanomaterial pour density
- Nanomaterial photocatalytic activity
- Nanomaterial radical formation potential
- Nanomaterial catalytic activity
- Endpoint summary
- Stability
- Biodegradation
- Bioaccumulation
- Transport and distribution
- Environmental data
- Additional information on environmental fate and behaviour
- Ecotoxicological Summary
- Aquatic toxicity
- Endpoint summary
- Short-term toxicity to fish
- Long-term toxicity to fish
- Short-term toxicity to aquatic invertebrates
- Long-term toxicity to aquatic invertebrates
- Toxicity to aquatic algae and cyanobacteria
- Toxicity to aquatic plants other than algae
- Toxicity to microorganisms
- Endocrine disrupter testing in aquatic vertebrates – in vivo
- Toxicity to other aquatic organisms
- Sediment toxicity
- Terrestrial toxicity
- Biological effects monitoring
- Biotransformation and kinetics
- Additional ecotoxological information
- Toxicological Summary
- Toxicokinetics, metabolism and distribution
- Acute Toxicity
- Irritation / corrosion
- Sensitisation
- Repeated dose toxicity
- Genetic toxicity
- Carcinogenicity
- Toxicity to reproduction
- Specific investigations
- Exposure related observations in humans
- Toxic effects on livestock and pets
- Additional toxicological data
Endpoint summary
Administrative data
Description of key information
Descriptions of human exposure and human clinical cases of exposure to iron in various forms
Additional information
Human observations.
Serum ferritin concentrations of placebo treated women were compared with those of iron-treated women, during and after pregnancy. The effect of supplementation on peri-natal complications and birth weight was considered. Iron treated women had greater iron reserves, higher haemoglobin and lower incidence of iron-deficiency anaemia than placebo treated women, both
in pregnancy and postpartum. Children born to iron-treated women had higher serum ferritin levels than those born to placebo-treated women.
In a study to elucidate the influence of social dietary and environmental factors on the incidence malignant epithelial tumours in the upper digestive tract
84 patients and 89 controls were included in the case-control
study. The study found an increased incidence of tumours with low values for haemoglobin, iron folic acid, magnesium and albumin, and with high
values for ferritin, vitamin B12 and thiocyanate. It is concluded that low serum iron increases the risk of this type or tumour.
95 patients with adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia, 67 patients with adenocarcinomas of the distal stomach, and 132
cancerfree controls and 89 controls were included in the study. hypertension and iron deficiency may be related to the risk of adenocarcinomas of oesophagus and gastric cardia and confirms the moderate risk associated with tobacco smoking. It is concluded that there is a negative association between dietary iron intake and the incidence of tumours of the upper digestive tract.
Clinical cases:
A review of the safety of vitamin and mineral supplements in food looked at: exposure to iron; the biological function of iron; iron deficiency; interactions with other metals; absorption and bioavailability; distribution, metabolism and excretion; toxicity. Guidance levels were established. The review reported average daily losses of 1.0 mg/day in healthy adult male humans, and 1.3 mg/day in pre-menopausal women. The acute doses were considered to be: 20mg/kg for infants (under the age of six) by gastrointestinal irritation, with systemic effects not occurring below 60mg/kg bw; 200-300mg/kg for children; 1400 mg/kg bw for adults. It was considered that there is not enough evidence to reach conclusions on specific links between iron and development of cancers.
61 incidences of obstetric iron overdose by ingestion were identified for further investigation. From the data extracted the patients were grouped according to maternal serum iron level either < 400 mcg/dL or >= 400 mcg/dL and by
stage of iron toxicity. Blood for peak levels was drawn at a mean 4.3 and 3.1 hours after ingestion for low and high exposure groups.
Groups were compared for maternal-foetal outcomes which included spontaneous abortion, perinatal death, preterm delivery, congenital
abnormalities or maternal death. The same groups were compared for aspects of deferoxamine use.
There was no relationship between peak iron level and frequency of spontaneous abortion, preterm delivery, congenital anomalies or perinatal or
maternal death. Peak iron levels were available for 23 patients. However patients with peak levels greater than 400 mcg/dL were more frequently
symptomatic than women with lower peak levels (12/13 compared to 5/10). Patients from both groups were treated similarly for the iron overdose.
Iron toxicity could be staged in 59 patients. Patients with stage 3 iron intoxication (organ failure) were more likely to spontaneously abort (1/3 vs 1/56),
deliver preterm (2/3 vs 6/56), or experience maternal death 3/3 vs 0/56).
A study based on follow-up of iron overdose patients (
Overdose was defined as any non-therapeutic dose of a drug), as
reported to the UK National Poisons Information Centre and the Teratology InformationService.
49 patients were included andin all of these the outcome of pregnancy was
known. For each patient a questionnaire was sent to the physician and the information in the publication is based entirely on information provided by
the physician.
The dose of iron taken was known in 48/49 patients. 28 reportedly took more than 1.2g (equivalent to 20 mg/kg in a 60 kg woman) while 21 took less
than 1.2g. There were no maternal or neonatal deaths. In 36 patients the serum iron level was known, all had iron levels above normal while 20/36
had measured serum iron levels > 60 mol/l. Of these, 14 cases had iron levels of 60-89 umol/l consistent with moderate toxicity with 6 cases >90
umol/l compatible with severe toxicity. There was no correlation between stated dose taken and highest serum iron level. 25 of these 49 patients
were treated with desferrioxamine (DFO).
Of the 49 pregnancies, 43 resulted in live babies, 2 had spontaneous abortions (one following abdominal trauma), 4 elective terminations. Of the
live babies, 3 were premature and another 3 had abnormalities. However, the authors concluded that, as all babies with malformations were
associated with overdoses after the first trimester, the malformations could not be directly related to the iron overdose (or to desferrioxamine
therapy, given in 2 cases where abnormalities occurred). Thus, there was no evidence from this study that iron causes developmental
malformations. Birth weights of babies in relation to serum iron and antidote treatment were presented, although numbers were too small to draw
general conclusions, all fell within the expected range and there was no correlation between serum iron and birth weight. There was no evidence to
suggest that DFO caused toxicity in the mother or baby.
Data on dietary and oral iron supplementation for the period 1950-1994 was collected through a food questionnaire within a population-based
case-control study. The study included parts of the Stockholm population observed between 1993-1994. Information was collected from 550 cases
and 549 controls. All cases and controls were born in Sweden, aged 50 -75 years and residents of Stockholm at the time of inclusion in the study.
Information on cases was drawn from the Stockholm cancer registry covering all new cases of malignant tumours in the region. In addition to
estimation of any intake of supplementary iron between 1950 and 1994 an assessment of supplementary iron intake due to symptoms in the 5 years
preceding cancer diagnosis was also undertaken. Incidence ratios between exposed and unexposed were assessed by odds ratios. Adjustments for total energy, age and gender were made.
Initial results taking into account all iron intake indicated an increased risk (odds ratio) for colon (OR 2.0) and rectal cancer (OR 1.5) compared to
controls. However if supplementary iron intake in the 5 years prior to diagnosis was excluded the odds ratio fell below 1 (OR colon cancer 0.9, rectal
cancer 0.8). OR values remained essentially unchanged when adjusted for total energy, age and gender. Adjusted relative risks for dietary iron intake
also gave OR values below unity (OR colon 0.6, rectal 0.8).
The problems of iron deficiency and iron overload in humans and the relationship of iron losses and iron absorption to iron
deficiency were reviewed. Iron losses in the male are reported as approximately 1 mg/day; in females obligatory losses are approximately 0.8 mg/day, with
menstrual losses varying widely, but averaging over the whole cycle at 0.4-0.5 mg/day; women require about 2 mg per day of absorbed iron to
remain in iron balance. Iron is absorbed more readily from haem than from cereals, and haem and ascorbic acid promote the absorption of iron from
cereals.
The incidence of iron overload was discussed. The ingestion of large amounts of bioavailable iron by normal subjects over many years can lead to
iron overload. Iron overload also occurs in subjects with hereditary diseases that lead to absorption of inappropriately large quantities of iron.
A review of the information available on the adsorption of iron and its toxicity has concluded that the evidence that suggests that luminal exposure to
excessive iron plays a role in the development of colon carcinoma is limited and unconvincing. Few data are available for other cancers, and the
evidence is unconvincing. Epidemiological associations between high iron intake and/or stores and increased risk of chronic diseases such as
cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes and cancer of the gastrointestinal tract are not considered to provide convincing evidence of a causal
relationship between iron intake or stores and such chronic diseases.
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